Understanding the background to the period that saw the revelation of the Zohar and the Tiqqunei ha-Zohar, helps us create a picture of the world that brought us these extraordinary and profound texts.
The late 13th and early 14th centuries marked a significant period for Jewish communities in the Iberian Peninsula, encompassing what is now Spain and Portugal. During this time, Jews experienced both periods of relative prosperity and increasing persecution, reflecting the complex and often turbulent social and political climate of the region.
Flourishing but Fearful
Jewish scholars and intellectuals flourished in the cosmopolitan city of Toledo under the reign of Alfonso X, King of Castile, León and Galicia between 1252 and 1284. This era saw the production of notable works such as the Alonsine Tables, an astronomical text compiled by Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scholars. Jewish philosophers like the Rambam (Maimonides) and poets like Judah al-Harizi made invaluable contributions to the cultural and intellectual landscape of the time.
However, this period of relative tolerance was not without its challenges. The late 13th century saw the rise of anti-Jewish sentiments fuelled by economic tensions and religious intolerance. In 1283, the first known anti-Semitic riots broke out in the town of Navarre, leading to the destruction of Jewish property and the forced conversion of some Jews to Christianity.
A Turn for the Worse
As the 14th century dawned, the situation for Jewish communities became increasingly precarious. The year 1348 marked a turning point with the outbreak of the Black Death pandemic in Europe. Jews were scapegoated for the plague, leading to widespread persecution and the decimation of many Jewish communities across the Iberian Peninsula.
In 1391, a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept across Spain, triggered by a Dominican friar's inflammatory sermons. Numerous Jewish communities were attacked, and many Jews were forced to convert to Christianity, becoming known as Conversos or New Christians. This event marked a significant turning point, as it effectively brought an end to the Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain.
Jewish Contribution in the Face of a Changing Reality
Despite the rising hostility, some Jewish communities managed to maintain their traditions and way of life. In cities like Barcelona and Valencia, Jewish neighbourhoods known as aljamas continued to exist, albeit under increasing pressure and restrictions.
Jewish contribution to all aspects of life in Spain, despite the erosion of their safety and standing within Spanish society. Jews played crucial roles in various industries, including finance, medicine, and commerce, contributing to the economic and cultural fabric of the Iberian Peninsula. Intellectually and culturally, Jewish achievements were also remarkable in this period. Jewish scholars, philosophers, poets, and intellectuals made significant contributions in various fields, including Talmudic studies, biblical exegesis, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, ethics, and Hebrew grammar, leaving a lasting impact on the intellectual and cultural landscape of the Iberian Peninsula during this period.
Examples of Spanish Jews and their Contributions from this Period
While the Rambam (Maimonides) is perhaps the most widely-known figure to have come from Medieval Spain – a towering contributor to Torah and Jewish legal scholarship, philosophy, astronomy, and medicine – there were numerous impressive figures from the period worthy of note, including:
- The Ranban (Nahmanides) (1194-1270): A renowned Talmudist, philosopher, and biblical commentator. His commentary on the Torah showcased his innovative interpretations and deep knowledge.
- Jacob Anatoli (c. 1194-c. 1256): A philosopher and scientist who translated and commented on Aristotelian works, contributing to the transmission of Greek knowledge to the Latin West.
- David Kimhi (c. 1160-c. 1235): A prolific biblical commentator and grammarian known for his works on Hebrew grammar, including Sefer Mikhlol.
- Shem Tov ibn Falaquera (c. 1225-c. 1295): A philosopher and translator who played a significant role in transmitting Arabic philosophical works to Hebrew.
- Isaac ben Samuel of Acre (c. 1235-c. 1330): An astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher known for his work on optics, Tzurat ha-Olam.
- Moses de Leon (c. 1250-1305): a Jewish writer and mystic best known for his role in the publication of the Zohar.
- Asher ben Jehiel (c. 1250-c. 1327): A prominent Talmudist and codifier of Jewish law, best known for his work Piskei HaRosh.
- Bahya ben Asher (c. 1255-1340): A Biblical commentator and philosopher, best known for his philosophical work Kad Ha-Kemah.
- Joseph Caspi (c. 1280-c. 1340): A philosopher and grammarian who wrote on ethics, logic, and Hebrew grammar, and is known for his work Sefer ha-Musar.
- Levi ben Gershon (1288-1344): A renowned mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher, known for his works on mathematics and his commentary on Euclid's Elements.
- Isaac Albalag (c. 1305-c. 1340): A philosopher and kabbalist who wrote on ethics and theology, known for his work Sefer Tikkun ha-De'ot.
The Dying Sparks of the Golden Age
The late 13th and early 14th centuries in the Iberian Peninsula were marked by a complex interplay of tolerance, intellectual achievements, and growing persecution for Jewish communities. This period witnessed the flourishing of Jewish scholarship and culture, as well as the emergence of anti-Semitic sentiments that would shape the future of Jewish life in the region. The legacy of this era remains a testament to the resilience and contributions of Jewish communities in the face of adversity.
However, the period known in Jewish history as the “Golden Age of Spain” was coming to an end. Jewish life became increasingly difficult and the pressure to convert to Christianity grew stronger. On March 31, 1492, the remarkable 700-year history of Spanish Jewry came crashing down with the Alhambra Decree, ordering the expulsion of Jews from Spain. This cataclysmic event was not only devastating for the hundreds of thousands of Jews directly impacted – some who left and others who converted in order to stay - but sent shock waves around the world. It marks a tragic conclusion to a community whose ideas, works, and achievements had profoundly impacted the world.
Image: Alfonso X of Castile and his court, Libro de los Juegos (Book of Games), c. 1285. From Wikimedia Creative Commons